Most properties are measured using a number and a unit of measurement.The unit of measurement is a standard amount. The number compares the property to the standard amount. The measurements that you definitely need are your chest, waist, hips, and inseam. You may also want to take your thigh and upper arm measurements. The process for getting your body measurements is simple.
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May 03 2013Read 5239 Times
Author: Clifford Jones on behalf of University of Aberdeen
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When the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) came into existence in 1898, its first assignment focused on materials and dimensions for rail tracks. At that time the oil industry was expanding quickly, and procedures for characterising oil products soon started to come within the scope of ASTM. The earliest ASTM standards for the oil industry were concerned with flash points (Jones, 2005). Taking into account the range of applications for petroleum products, from gasoline to heavy residue, viscosity / resistance to flow became important quantities in usage. This created, by the middle of the 20th Century, ASTM standards for the viscosity of petroleum products (Johnson & Auth, 1951). By this time standards bodies had been established in many countries and ISO, an international network of standards bodies, had been formed with its headquarters in Geneva.
Johnson & Auth (1951) cites ASTM D445-2T ‘Method of Test for Kinematic Viscosity’, and an examination of this follows. Kinematic viscosity has dimensions length2 time-1 as do thermal diffusivity and diffusion coefficient. They are analogue quantities, depending on whether momentum, heat or mass is being transferred. What Johnson & Auth (1951) called ASTM D445-2T has now become ASTM D445–12 (ASTM International, 2013), which may well have successive revisions. This standard involves measuring the time taken for the liquid to descend a calibrated capillary. ASTM D445–12 covers the range of kinematic viscosities 0.2 to 300000 mm2 s-1 (2 × 10-7 to 0.3 m2 s-1) and we note that 10-4 m2 s-1 = 1 stoke. In order that a reader should have a feel for these quantities they are given in tabulated form below for a number of liquids.
Before considering instrumentation which conforms to ASTM D445–12 we shall consider further the standard itself and other similar ones. ISO, as a body drawing together and co-ordinating ‘standards’ worldwide, often adds its own authority to that of a national body having issued a particular standard. This is true of ASTM D445–12 which is also ISO 3104: 1994. Having the same scope and purpose as ASTM D445–12 and ISO 3104: 1994 but not identical in all respects with them are DIN 51366 (Germany) and IP 71 (UK). Instruments for measuring viscosity by these means are widely available. The illustration below is of a viscometer of fairly simple construction designed for measurement according to ASTM D 445 and ISO 3104.
This viscometer is suitable for transparent liquids only and this prevents application with heavy residues. The glasswork shown in the plate is suspended in a water bath to make sure the temperature of measurement is controlled.
Also conforming to ASTM D445 but able to be used for opaque as well as transparent liquids is the Cannon Instruments miniAV® (below).
The Cannon miniAV®, which can be operated at temperatures up to 100oC, has a kinematic viscosity measurement range of 0.3 to 6000 centistokes. This enables it to be used for substances as different as gasoline (lower measurement limit) and hydrocarbon greases (upper measurement limit).
There are many viscometers available for use and often their advertisement features ‘ASTM D445’ in bold. The two examples chosen above are each compliant with this standard, which has been in use for many decades. They differ in degree of instrumentational advancement, and the fact that both viscometers continue to find application is evidence of the continuing methodology which characterises so much of petroleum technology. Biodiesels at this early stage of their international adoption are precisely specified in kinematic viscosity terms. This is evidence of commitment to their development and the same can be said of the various gasoline/alcohol blends which have become available since carbon footprints of fuels became such an important issue.
Devices such as those pictured (and there are many more) have to be calibrated against standards, liquids of well characterised viscosity within the range of measurement for that instrument. It often happens that when measuring viscosity, over the whole process, two or more standards are used together. The standard which applies to the calibration is ASTM D2162: Standard Practice for Basic Calibration of Master Viscometers and Viscosity Oil Standards. When ASTM D445 and ASTM D2162 are used in conjunction with each other, as they frequently are, a distinction has to be made between a routine viscometer to which the former applies and a ‘master viscometer’ to which the latter applies. A glass capillary master viscometer manufactured by Cannon (PM Tamson Instruments, 2013) is shown in plate 3 below.
The difference between a routine and a master glass capillary viscometer is one of degree and depends on the precision of the glassblowing when being manufactured. The calibration standards referred to above will have been tested on a master viscometer in accordance with ASTM D2162 and can then be applied to other viscometers whose users invoke ASTM D445. For example Conostan® (2013) make standards ranging in kinematic viscosity at 40oC from 2.8 to 23000 centistokes. Their kinematic viscosities at other temperatures are also known with the precision expected of an ASTM D2162 product. There are also standards for viscosities at low temperatures such as might be experienced by a jet fuel at full altitude (DC Scientific, 2011). An alert reader may well be wondering why a pure organic compound cannot be used as a reference instead of an expensive standard. This is fine provided that the viscosity of the compound has itself been determined in a master viscometer by ASTM D2162, but reliance on a tabulated value of the viscosity of the pure compound is not satisfactory.
Not only the ‘advanced’ nations but the less so have standards bodies, and this article will conclude with mention of a viscosity specification by a body from a less developed region of the world. IS 15607: 2005, issued by Bureau of Indian Standards, gives the kinematic viscosity range for biodiesels made in India as 2.5 to 6.0 centistokes. This differs a little from the requirements of European Standard 14214 which are given in the above table.
References
ASTM International. (2013) ASTM D445-12 [online] Available at: http://www.astm.org/Standards/D445.htm [Accessed 27 February 2013]
BP. (2013) BP Marine [online] Available at: http://www.bp.com/extendedsectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=9031126&contentId=7056965 [Accessed 27 February 2013]
Cannon Instrument Company. (2013) miniAV Series [online] Available at: http://www.cannoninstrument.com/miniAV.htm [Accessed 27 February 2013]
Conostan. (2013) Viscosity Standards [online] Available at: http://www.conostan.com/oil-viscosity-standards.aspx [Accessed 27 February 2013]
DC Scientific. (2011) Low Temperature Viscosity Standards [online] Available at: http://dcglass.com/products-and-services/measurement-calibration-standards/low-temperature-viscosity-standards [Accessed 27 February 2013]
Esso. (2009) Esso Ultra, Super Premium Passenger Car Engine Oil [online] Available at: http://www.ravansanatoil.com/PDF/OIL/ESSO/IOCAENPVLESEsso_Ultra.pdf [Accessed 27 February 2013]
Exxon Mobil. (2005) World Jet Fuel Specifications [online] Available at: http://www.exxonmobil.com/AviationGlobal/Files/WorldJetFuelSpecifications2005.pdf [Accessed 27 February 2013]
Johnson A.J., Auth G.H., 1951. Fuels and Combustion Handbook. McGraw-Hill.
Jones J.C., 2005. Advice on flash points. Petro Industry News, 6(3), pp. 10
PM Tamson Instruments. (2013) Master Cannon Fenske Viscometer, ASTM D2162 [online] Available at: http://www.tamson-instruments.com/index.php/products/acessories/viscometers/master-cannon-fenske/master-cannon-fenske-viscometer-astm-d2162.html [Accessed 27 February 2013]
The Engineering Toolbox. (2013) Fluids – Kinematic Viscosities [online] Available at: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/kinematic-viscosity-d_397.html [Accessed 27 February 2013]
Thomas Scientific. (2013) BS/IP/SL Suspended Level Viscometer [online] Available at: http://www.thomassci.com/Equipment/Glass-Viscometers/_/BSIPSL-SUSPENDED-LEVEL-VISCOMETER?q=Kinematic%20Viscometer [Accessed 27 February 2013]
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The Body Type Calculator is designed for females to find their 'body shape,' which can be used for getting targeted outfit Ideas. Even though there is some research linking certain body shapes with some health risks, the body shape result of this calculator is not intended to be a serious indication of health or an ideal that must be met. Instead, waist-hip ratio, which is also shown in the results of this calculator, is a better indicator of health.
When measuring, be sure to stand straight with arms to the side. Make sure the tape is snug against the body, but not too tight such that it compresses the body (making the measurement inaccurate).
Bust size—the circumference measured around the chest over the fullest part of the breasts, while wearing a properly fitted bra.
Waist size—the smallest circumference measured around the natural waist, just above the belly button.
High hip size—the circumference of the upper swell of the hip over the pelvic region. It is around 7 inches (18 cm) below the natural waist.
Hip size—the largest circumference measured around the hips over the largest part of the buttocks.
Female body shapes in the fashion industry
In the fashion industry, body shapes are often categorized into four classes.
Apple, or inverted triangle
This body shape describes a person who has broader shoulders and bust than they do hips.
Banana, straight, or rectangle
This body shape describes a person who typically has waist measurements that are less than 9 inches smaller than the hip or bust measurements.
Pear, spoon, bell, or triangle
This body shape describes a person who has hip measurements greater than their bust measurements.
Hourglass, X shape, triangles opposing, or facing inwards
This body shape (typically presented as the 'ideal') describes a person with hip and bust measurements nearly equal in size, with a narrower waist measurement.
A study of more than 6,000 women conducted at North Carolina State University in 2005 revealed that 46% of women were banana-shaped; just over 20% were pear-shaped; just under 14% were apple-shaped; and only 8% were hourglass-shaped.
What is my body shape?
The female body shapes are based on societal standards that are subjective and are different in different cultures. The algorithm used in this calculator is based on a study published in the International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, which breaks down the body shapes of women into 7 categories1. There are very wide ranges of actual sizes within each shape. Also, some body shapes may not fit into any of the shapes listed below.
Hourglass
If (bust - hips) ≤ 1' AND (hips - bust) < 3.6' AND (bust - waist) ≥ 9' OR (hips - waist) ≥ 10'
Bottom hourglass
If (hips - bust) ≥ 3.6' AND (hips - bust) < 10' AND (hips - waist) ≥ 9' AND (high hip/waist) < 1.193
Top hourglass
If (bust - hips) > 1' AND (bust - hips) < 10' AND (bust - waist) ≥ 9'
Spoon
If (hips - bust) > 2' AND (hips - waist) ≥ 7' AND (high hip/waist) ≥ 1.193
Triangle
If (hips - bust) ≥ 3.6' AND (hips - waist) < 9'
Inverted triangle
If (bust - hips) ≥ 3.6' AND (bust - waist) < 9'
Rectangle
If (hips - bust) < 3.6' AND (bust - hips) < 3.6' AND (bust - waist) < 9' AND (hips - waist) < 10'
Waist-hip ratio
Waist-hip ratio (WHR) is defined as the ratio of waist circumference to hip circumference. The value is calculated by dividing waist measurement by hip measurement. A person with a 34' waist and 40' hip would therefore have a waist-hip ratio of 34/40, or 0.85. Waist-hip ratio is sometimes used as an indicator of certain health conditions. Research has shown that people with more weight around their waist, or who have 'apple-shaped' bodies, are at higher risk than those with more weight around their hips, or who have 'pear-shaped' bodies. According to the National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), women with WHRs above 0.8 and men with WHRs above 1.0 have higher health risks as a result of their fat distribution.
WHR is also used as a measurement of obesity. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines males with a WHR above 0.90 and females with a WHR above 0.85 as obese. This corresponds to a body mass index (BMI) above 30. Obesity can be an indicator of a number of serious health conditions such as hypertension, coronary heart disease, diabetes, some cancers, and more. WHR has been found to be more effective than both waist circumference and BMI for predicting mortality in people above the age of 75; WHR has also been found to be a better predictor of cardiovascular disease than both these measures. According to a study by Yusuf S, et al.2, were obesity to be re-defined based on WHR rather than BMI, the proportion of people who would be categorized as being at risk of heart attack would increase three times.
Abdominal fat (which corresponds to people with 'apple-shaped' bodies) has been found to result in higher health risks than other peripheral fat. A higher WHR indicates more abdominal fat, and the higher the ratio, the higher the risk of potential health complications. Refer to the Body Fat Calculator for more information regarding different types of fat and the risks associated with being overweight or obese.
WHR is also correlated with fertility, with different values being optimal for males and females. Females with WHRs above 0.80 have been found to have significantly lower pregnancy rates than those with WHRs between 0.70 and 0.79. Studies have also shown that men with WHRs around 0.9 are more fertile, tend to be healthier, and also have a lower chance of both prostate and testicular cancer.
Aside from the associated health risks, WHR has also been studied in relation to cognitive ability, as a measure of female attractiveness, and even in relation to food composition in a diet.
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- Lee, J.Y., Istook,C.L., Nam, Y. J., and Park, S. M., 'Comparison of body shape between USA and Korean women', International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, Vol.19, No.5, 2007, pp.374-391.
- Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Bautista L, Franzosi MG, Commerford P, Lang CC, Rumboldt Z, Onen CL, Lisheng L, Tanomsup S, Wangai P, Razak F, Sharma AM, Anand SS (November 2005). 'Obesity and the risk of myocardial infarction in 27,000 participants from 52 countries: a case-control study'. Lancet. 366 (9497): 1640-9.